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San Rose Garden.San Rose Garden InformationTuesday, Mar. 28, 2000social psychology Socialization The process by which personality is formed as the result of social influences is called socialization. Early research methods employed case studies of individuals and of individual societies (e.g., primitive tribes). Later research has made statistical comparisons of numbers of persons or of different societies; differences in child-rearing methods from one society to another, for example, have been shown to be related to the subsequent behaviour of the infants when they become adults. Such statistical approaches are limited, since they fail to discern whether both the personality of the child and the child-rearing methods used by the parents are the result of inherited factors or whether the parents are affected by the behaviour of their children. Problems in the process of socialization that have been studied by experimental methods include the analysis of mother-child interaction in infancy; the effects of parental patterns of behaviour on the development of intelligence, moral behaviour, mental health, delinquency, self-image, and other aspects of the personality of the child; the effects of birth order (e.g., being the first-born or second-born child) on the individual; and changes of personality during adolescence. Investigators have also studied the origins and functioning of achievement motivation and other social drives (e.g., as measured with personality tests). Several theories have stimulated research into socialization; Freudian theory led to some of the earliest studies on such activities as oral and anal behaviour (e.g., the effect of the toilet training of children on obsessional and other \"anal\" behaviour). Learning theory led to the study of the effects of rewards and punishments on simple social behaviour and was extended to more complex processes such as imitation and morality (e.g., the analysis of conscience). The self Such concepts as self-esteem, self-image, and ego-involvement have been regarded by some social psychologists as useful, while others have regarded them as superfluous. There is a considerable amount of research on such topics as embarrassment and behaviour in front of audiences, in which self-image and self-esteem have been assessed by various self-rating methods. The origin of awareness of self has been studied in relation to the reactions of others and to the child\'s comparisons of himself with other children. Particular attention has been paid to the so-called identity crisis that is observed at various stages of life (e.g., in adolescence) as the person struggles to discern the social role that best fits his self-concept. Attitudes and beliefs Research into the origins, dynamics, and changes of attitudes and beliefs has been carried out by laboratory experiments (studying relatively minor effects), by social surveys and other statistical field studies, by psychometric studies, and occasionally by field experiments. The origins of these socially important predispositions have been sought in the study of parental attitudes, group norms, social influence and propaganda, and in various aspects of personality. The influence of personality has been studied by correlating measured attitudes with individual personality traits and by clinical studies of cognitive and motivational processes; so-called authoritarian behaviour, for example, has been found to be deeply embedded in the personality of the individual. Early research based on statistical analyses of social attitudes revealed correlations with such factors as radicalism-conservatism. Later research on consistency provided extensive laboratory evidence of consistency but little evidence of it in actual political behaviour (e.g., in attitudes on different political issues). Research on attitude change has studied the effects of the mass media, the optimum design of persuasive messages, the effects of motivational arousal, and the role of opinion leaders (e.g., teachers and ministers). Research has been carried out into the origins, functioning, and change of particular attitudes (e.g., racial, international, political, and religious), each of which is affected by special factors. Attitudes toward racial minority groups, for example, are affected by social conditions, such as the local housing, employment, and the political situation; political attitudes are affected by social class and age; and religious attitudes and beliefs strongly reflect such factors as inner personality conflict. Various specialties in social psychology Many social psychologists are concerned with such aspects of public opinion (social survey) research as the design of standardized interviews and questionnaires. Forms of questions have been devised to compensate for errors that arise from the efforts to respond in a socially approved manner; some are designed to detect lying. Mass communications have been devised on the basis of research into persuasion. Use is also still made of Freudian symbolism and theory. Research into the causes of mental disorders has shown the importance of social factors in the family and elsewhere. Mental patients often show deficiencies in social performance that may be the cause of other symptoms. Many social psychologists hold that social factors may also apply to such disorders as schizophrenia, which also seem to have hereditary and chemical bases. There has been a corresponding growth in the use of various kinds of social therapy in psychiatry (e.g., group therapy, therapeutic communities, and social-skills training). Considerable research has been devoted to industrial productivity, absenteeism, labour turnover, accidents, and job satisfaction. Factors that have been found to be important include the style of supervision and management, the size and composition of working groups, the technology and the work-flow systems, the span of control, and other features of the organizational structure. Research results point strongly toward the advantages of a less rigid hierarchical structure of authority, with more delegation of authority and consultation, training in supervisory skills, small and cooperative work teams, and interesting and varied work. A major application of research in social interaction and group behaviour is in training in social skills, as in the T-groups, or sensitivity training, noted above. Role playing with video-tape playback and training in the imitation of other persons who serve as behavioral models are used in teaching people new skills. Actual training on the job has the advantage that there is no gap between the training and the work itself. All of these methods have been shown to be effective, depending on the job and the teacher. Social-skills training has been given successfully to industrial managers and supervisors, social workers and clergymen, interviewers, public speakers, mental patients, and juvenile delinquents. A great deal of research has been done on factors underlying racial prejudice, but the understanding thus obtained has not had much effect upon the social problems involved. Similarly, the causes of delinquency and crime have been extensively studied, but it is not feasible to manipulate the factors influencing crime, such as genetic factors, methods of upbringing, and inequalities of opportunity. Social psychology has made some contribution to education; sociometry is quite widely practiced as a means of grouping children, and evidence is growing about the optimum styles of teacher behaviour. (M.Ar.) (Ed.) << Previous | Next >> Contents of this article: Introduction Research methods Social perception Interaction processes Small social groups Social organizations 20th-century approaches Personality Socialization The self Attitudes and beliefs Various specialties in social psychology Bibliography Information about this topic in other articles: social psychology assessment of attitudes attitude from attitude contribution by Lewin Lewin, Kurt from Lewin, Kurt Mead Mead, George Herbert from Mead, George Herbert development as social science Social psychology from social science use in definition of prayer Origin and development from prayer |